Power and social movements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Power and social movements - Essay Example Furthermore, crowd mechanisms cannot be used to achieve communication and coordination of activity over a wide area, such as a nation or continent (Social Movement, 2006). In this regard, Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective challenges by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities. He specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and interest groups (Tarrow, 1994). From whatever perspective one views social movement, it is apparent that all definitions of social movement reflect the notion that they are intrinsically related to social change; an attempt by the perceived powerless and voiceless in the society to exert their voice and power with an eye towards achieving such change. They do not, however, encompass the activities of people as members of stable social groups with established, unquestioned structures, norms, and values (Social Movement, 2006). Over the past few decades, several factors such as education, which have encouraged wider dissemination of literature, the increased mobility of labour due to the industrialisation and urbanisation of 19th century societies, the freedom of expression, and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern western society have precipitated an explosion of social movements in countries across the globe (Schock, 2005; Giddens et al, 2003). The New Social Movement (NSM); a new term that has come to describe the several social movements that sprung up over time, ranges from the civil rights and feminist movements of the 1960s and 1970s to the antinuclear and ecological movements of the 1980s and the gay rights campaign of the 1990s. Increasingly, traditional political institutions are becoming unable to cope with these challenges facing them. Taking a look at the origin of social movements, Tilly (2004) argues that social movement was not in existence before the late eighteenth century. Although he concedes that several elements like campaigns, social movement repertoire and WUNC displays have a long history, he opined that they were only recently combined together into what could be seen properly as a social movement. Social movement first came into existence in England and North America during the first decades of the nineteenth century and has since then spread across the globe (Tilly, 2004) From several indications it is apparent that the early growth of social movements was connected to broad economic and political changes including parliamentarisation, capitalisation, etc. Political movements that evolved in late 18th century, like those connected to the French Revolution and Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 are among the first documented social movements, although Tilly notes that the British abolitionist movement has "some claims" to being the first social movement (becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and the second great petition drive of 1806). The labour movement and socialist movement of the late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social movements, leading to the formation of communist and social democratic parties and organisations. From 1815, Britain after victory in the Napoleonic Wars

Education Reform Essay Example for Free

Education Reform Essay Education reform has been a heavily debated topic over the past several decades. This dispute, over education standards, peaked my interest due to my belief that the majority of students in public schools across the United States are underperforming in comparison to other first world countries. On the other hand some teachers and education professionals consider the existing policies adequate in teaching students, and they oppose any new regulations bestowed on by the federal government. These professionals fear that the outcome of increased government action will only result in further standardized testing. There are a plethora of aspects pertaining to education reform, I will just be focusing on a few, including; whether additional schooling controls economic prosperity, if written exams indicate the knowledge a student retains from a particular course, and should the federal government regulate the education system? By beginning some perfunctory research I quickly decided that the United States was in fact in dire need for reform. I chose to investigate further into the issue to find a clearer understanding of what schools and faculty can do to better assist their students. The process of establishing and supporting my thesis was a culmination of multiple components. My Ultimate goal is for the reader to fully comprehend the impurities of public education. My research began with determining a topic, then the research portion of the assignment commenced. Research was not as easy as entering your topic in on a search engine, the sources had to be specific to your topic, from a trustworthy publisher, and factual. Additionally there were requirement as to the medium of sources we needed to incorporate, such as a book, an interview, and a periodical.

Causes of the Egyptian Revolution

Causes of the Egyptian Revolution CHAPTER II Literature Review Revolution is a process of rapid and fundamental change of the social, economic, and political systems, leading to collapsing an old regime and its associated elite. By studying concepts and historical examples of revolutions, we can find some valuable points common for all revolutionist movements, thus helping analyze the motives of the Egyptian Revolution. Ted Robert Gurr defines revolution as, â€Å"highly organized political violence with wide spread general participation, designed to over-throw the regime or dissolve the state and accompanied by extensive violence.†[1] The term revolution can be used differently in many contexts; however, it usually means a violent overthrow of a regime or social structure or a great sudden change in social principles. A revolution typically characterizes a complete change from one way of doing something to a different way that is usually represents the reverse. Gurr writes, men are quick to aspire beyond their social means and quick to anger when those means prove inadequate, but slow to accept their limitations.[2] He also states, â€Å"people act out their frustrations if they believe that they stand a chance of relieving some of their discontent through violence.[3] He explains this, however, by signifying that angry people are likely to be more open to arguments that violence would help, so emotion eliminates the calculation, making acts less than rational. Jeff Goodwin gives two explanations for revolution. He defined revolution in one definition as any and all instances in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extra-constitutional and/or violent fashion. He made also a narrow definition and points out â€Å"revolutions entail not only mass mobilization and regime change, but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic and/or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for state power.[4] Both definitions tell us that revolutions are instruments for changing a system. From another perspective, Jack Goldstone defines revolution as an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and non-institutionalized actions that undermine authorities. [5] He does not talk about large mobilization movements. He simply mentions revolutions as an effort to change political institutions. Proponents of Marxist thought use the term revolution in a very particular way. While reforms are changes in existing social and cultural system, social revolutions cause a sudden shift from one social order to another. For example, Theda Skocpol described revolution as rapid, basic transformations of a societys state and class structures; and they are accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below,†[6] attaching revolutions to a combination of several conflicts between state, bourgeoisies and the lower class people. She also states, â€Å"revolutions are not just extreme forms of individual or collective behavior. They are distinctive conjectures of socio-historical structures and processes,†[7] attributing revolutions to social elements. What observable political conditions ought to prevail before a revolution begins? Charles Tilly states that three conditions appear to be necessary, and a fourth strongly facilitating. The three apparently necessary conditions are as follows: Alliances or coalitions of contenders, bringing forward claims to the control the state that is currently being controlled by the members of the regime. A significant part of the given population’s commitment to those claims Reluctance or ineffectiveness of the government to put an end to these alternative coalitions or people’s commitment to their claims. Establishment of alliances or coalitions between members of the regime and the contenders bringing forward alternative claims.[8] From a different of view, James Defronzo explains conditions that make revolutions possible in terms of five factors: mass frustration, divided elites, unifying motivations that unite different social groups in support of revolution, a severe political crisis for the government including legitimacy loss and loyalty of armed forces, and a permissive or tolerant world environment in which other nations do not intervene to stop a revolution from developing.[9] He argues that a high amount of mass discontent usually stems from three steps independently or a combination of them: a decline in living situations; a change in the moral tolerability of current conditions involving people feeling that their lives can and should be better; or a period of betterment in the people’s living conditions followed by a severe decline.[10] Displeasure previous to an outburst of a revolutionary movement is often deepened by sensational events that stir up many people such as violent government suppression of challengers. According to Jack Goldstone, revolutions rarely triumph because the conditions rarely coincide. Monarchic states are able to sustain popular support through making appeals respect for nationalism and royal tradition. Privileged elites, who are often enriched by such governments, will only abandon them if their conditions or the doctrine of the rulers changes radically. It is difficult for a general mobilization to triumph because it requires reconciliation of the different interests of the rural or urban poor, students, the middle class people, and many ethnic or social groups. There are many events in history such as student activists, workers strikes, and peasant uprisings that were quickly suppressed because they were a movement of one single group, rather than of a large one. Other international states have often gotten involved in these uprisings to support authoritarian rulers in order to preserve balance and make the international system stable.[11] Even if revolutionary efforts fail, they can possibly result in significant social change. Government or dominant groups will make concessions so as to settle down the protestors, when people try to make an important change in society. Even if these concessions do not satisfy the people’s demands of a total change, they can indicate significant progress. At times, social change can take place step by step because unsuccessful revolts gradually lead a society into a different way, until a new lifestyle is finally achieved. Not all turbulence should be labelled as revolution. Political turmoil is highly possible during the process of modernization. In Samuel Huntington’s words â€Å"it is not a lack of modernity rather the efforts to achieve it that causes political turmoil.†[12] Social mobilization and economic development may be disruptive. For example, economic development results in high economic inequality and social mobilization causing that inequality to be less legitimate.[13] A discrepancy between the public wellbeing and private interest becomes apparent when a culture improves, resulting in the rise of corruption as a problem. This problem can lead to the entrance of new groups to the current political system, or it can promote economic growth if government creates it through the expanse of government regulation. Though corruption may weaken the current regime, it can make political parties stronger, and in fact promote political development in countries where the regime has too much authority.[14] Theda Skocpol states that social revolutions are rapid and basic transformations of a societys state and class structures. What makes Social Revolutions important is that basic changes in social and political structure occur and these changes take place by means of intense sociopolitical conflict.[15] In the end, these changes lead to the collapse of one system and the erection a new one. The French Revolution was a social and political one that supplanted feudalism with capitalism. People did not just get rid of the monarchy, but also they killed thousands of aristocrats who had taken advantage of people for centuries. Peasants made up most of the people and the feudal relationship between those peasants and landlords was eradicated. It paved the way for capitalist relationships of manufacture and trade. In â€Å"Comparative Revolutionary Movements,† Thomas H. Greene argues that if economic conditions of a state worsen, they can lead to a revolution.[16] The reason for the economic downturn, which led to the overturn of the government in Ghana, was the worsening agricultural production that caused great trade imbalance, a huge overseas loan, and extremely high unemployment rates.[17] Likewise, the economic crisis between 1970s and 1980s in Poland exploded enormous revolts and high rates of discontent.[18] Neil Smelser states that economic issues, such as unemployment, food scarcities, rising food prices, and decreased earnings are related to the upsurge of violence between Mexico and England in a situation similar to what was seen before the French Revolution.[19] One of the most important factors that gave rise to the Mexican revolution in 1911 was the economic crisis that the country experienced at the end of Porfirio Diaz’s rule. High levels of inflation and unemployment rates in the last four years of Diaz`s reign, causing Mexico to experience deterioration and stagnation. Decline in the price of sugar, which was the country’s chief export product, was the main reason behind the decline in the Mexican economy. Likewise, in Cuba, the over-dependence on sugar as an economic incentive brought about high levels of unemployment rate and worsening economic conditions when exports to the U.S. diminished. The economic crisis of the late 1950s was only credited to sugar plantation and following unemployment. This over-dependence on single business, together with widespread corruption and nepotism by the Batista government also brought about increasing unemployment rates, particularly during non-growing seasons. The living standard in Cuba decreased dramatically because Cuban wages were unable to contend with high inflation levels during the 1950s. [20] History of revolutions in Egypt Making revolution is not something new for Egyptians because they have had three momentous revolutions in their history. One of them was he 1881 Urabi Revolution which dethroned a crooked and comprador monarchs. Another one was the Revolution of 1919, which almost overthrew British military hegemony, and the other one was 1952 revolution, which initiated the military despotism of Nasser, Sadat, and Mubarak for sixty years. Creating the second parliamentary regime on the African Continent, the first revolution turned out to be successful before foreign military intervention changed the form of government. After the defeat, the British formed a colonial rule in Egypt for more than seventy years. The second revolution was a persistent, widespread revolt controlled by a range of pro-democracy protestors from many different civil societies. Although violently suppressed, it did compel the British to make some concessions. The third revolution in Egypt is different from the first two becau se it was a revolution that went out of its way to restrict popular involvement. [21] Anyhow, in 1881 it finally ended the regime of the royal family and started a course of British removal from Egypt. Views on the Causes of the Egyptian Revolution What are the causes that gave rise to this important synergy and resistance? Three main reasons have emerged to explain this mystery: technology, Tunisia, and discomfort.[22] It is obvious that Tunisian unrest was a catalyst, motivating Egyptians to rush out into the streets. The Tunisian government was even more oppressive than the government of Egypt. So if the Tunisians were able to get rid of their ruthless dictator, why could the Egyptians not manage? Tunisian upheaval might have been the starting point, but there are many other important changes in Egypt’s political and social background that also give rise to an explanation for the revolution. Egyptians had increasingly resorted to protests and street politics to claim their demands and disrupt the position of their monarchs. Since 2004, Egypt had seen an increasing number of protests and rallies led by textile and health workers, judges, doctors, pharmacists, lawyers, transportation workers and even property tax collec tors. These workers wanted better salaries and working conditions, and relief from the harsh poverty that has distressed most of the people, whereas the rich became obviously richer and public organizations that in the past delivered service for poor Egyptians descended toward disrepair and jobs decreased as well.[23] People fell into a miserable situation where there were no hopes, nor dreams left for a better future for their children. There are many other assessments regarding the origins of the Egyptian 2011 Revolution. Political thinker and strategist Dr. Tarek Heggy, one of Egypt’s more famous authors on the subject of political reform in Egypt, states that the Egyptian people’s desire for democracy, the ruling system and legal elections were the main motives for the revolution. Another specialist Mohammed Fadel states that bribery and corruption in the government were the most important reasons behind the revolution.[24] Mona El-Ghobashy expresses in her article that the 2011 revolution occurred because there had been an unexpected change in the equal distribution of resources between ruled and rulers.[25] She also provides three reasons for the revolution: â€Å"technology, Tunisia and tribulations.†[26] Moreover, Ursula Lindsey has argued that social media, whereas it did not directly bring about the upheaval, shared a spectacular role in connecting the people who would join latter in the protests.[27] The Bank Information Center (BIC)[28] in 2007 reported that the World Bank had shown the following problems as among the most tenacious challenges that Egypt faced in fighting poverty and maintaining sustainable development: high unemployment, increasing poverty, social and economic inequality, high budget deficit, and net public debt. Every problem, whether it was corruption, the country’s foreign policy, economic conditions or social problems, played a role in motivating Egypt’ s people to revolt. The people, particularly young people, had important access to use of information and communication networks, such as mobile phone services, new social media and TV were important as events blossomed. While the government used the state information, disseminating systems to spread propaganda against the rebellions, the protesters dispersed their message by using means that was creative, disciplined, and revolutionizing. The victory of the revolution, at least for its main demand, resignation of Mubarak, was associated with defamation of state-controlled newscast, a blossoming of home-produced media of all kinds.[29] While social media did not create the Egyptian uprising, they played an immense role in getting together many of the young people who would ultimately join the demonstrations. We Are All Khalid Sa‘id was one of the Facebook groups that was created in 2010 to honor a young man beaten by police and died, having more than half-million members in the protests on January 25, 2011. These groups were instrumental in organizing the protests and a new expression has come into the Egyptian language. The internet-led generation that organized the initial protests is known as the Facebook Kids.[30] In general, street politics and in particular, the Arab street politics were more complicated. The Arab street is chiefly an appearance of public sentiment, but it has experienced important changes in its style and way of expression. Street politics is the contemporary theater of discontent people. It has played a great role in such massive political events as the French Revolution, anti-colonial fights, nineteenth-century industrial movements, the velvet revolutions in Eastern Europe, and various anti-war protests. For ordinary people, the street is the main site of politics, or and it is the chief place to spend time for those who do not generally have positions of power. It is at the same time social and cultural, continuous and present, a home of the strange and the familiar, the visible and the verbal, the street symbolizes a complex place where opinions and attitudes are formed, spread and voiced in a unique way.[31] Economic inequalities and poverty among different groups of society are important precursors for many revolutions. Welch and Taintor mention those concepts in addition to rapid economic worsening, poverty and inequalities between manufacturing and the distribution of that merchandise.[32] Cynthia McClintock argues that the inconsistency between global and domestic markets causes the latter to depend on the former concerning reliance on industrialized states for technology and money.[33] Schultz and Slater state that this dependence essentially triggers the separation of society and diminishing of rural population.[34] The chronic structural problems affecting the Arab world came to a head prior to 2011 through a combination of persistently high unemployment, especially among youth (and educated youth at that), rampant corruption, internal regional and social inequalities, and a further deterioration of economic conditions because of the global 2008 financial crisis and food price increases. Even the initial event in Tunisia that exploded into the Arab Spring upheaval was related to economics. The Tunisian street seller,  ­Mohamed Bouazizi, burnt himself because of his conditions of poverty. [1] Ted Robert Gurr, Why men rebel, Princeton, N.J.: Published for the Center of International Studies, Princeton University [by] Princeton University Press, 1970, 11. [2] Ibid., 58. [3] Ibid., 210. [4] Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945-1991 (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 9. [5] Jack A. Goldstone, Toward a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory, Annual Review of Political Science 4, no. 1 (06, 2001), 142. [6] Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 4. [7] Theda Skocpol, France, Russia, China: A Structural Analysis of Social Revolutions, Comparative Studies in Society and History 18, no. 2 (Apr., 1976), 177. [8] Charles Tilly, Does Modernization Breed Revolution? Comparative Politics 5, no. 3, Special Issue on Revolution and Social Change (Apr., 1973), 425-447. [9] James DeFronzo, Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2007), 12. [10] James DeFronzo, Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements, 13-14. [11] Jack A. Goldstone, Understanding the Revolutions of 2011: Weakness and Resilience in Middle Eastern Autocracies, Foreign Affairs 90, no. 3 (May/Jun 2011, 2011), 8-16. [12] Samuel P. Huntington, Political order in changing societies, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968 41. [13] Samuel P. Huntington, Political order in changing societies, 59. [14] Ibid., 69-70. [15] Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, 3. [16] Thomas H. Greene, Comparative Revolutionary Movements (New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publishing, 1990), 19. [17] Greene, Comparative Revolutionary Movements, 96. [18] Ibid., 97. [19] Neil J. Smelser and Richard Swedberg, the Handbook of Economic Sociology, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 73. [20] Brian H. Pollitt, Sugar, Dependency, and the Cuban Revolution (Glasgow, Scotland: University of Glasgow, 1985), 196-197. [21] Jeannie Lynn Sowers and Christopher J. Toensing, The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt (London; New York: Verso, 2012), 48. [22] Ibid., 21. [23] â€Å"The Architects of the Egyptian Revolution,† The Nation, Saba Mahmood February 14, 2011 [24] Mohamed Fadel, Public Corruption and the Egyptian Revolution of January 25: Can Emerging International Anti-Corruption Norms Assist Egypt Recover Misappropriated Public Funds? Harvard International Law journal, volume 52, April 2011, 293. [25] El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, The praxis of the Egyptian revolution, 22 edited by Jeannie Sowers and ChrisToensing, 22. [26] El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, 21. [27]El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, 54. [28] Bank Information Center (BIC).http://www.bicusa.org,accessed on (October 19, 2013). [29] Jeannie Lynn Sowers, Christopher J. Toensing, The Journey to Tahrir, 53. [30] El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, 54. [31]Jeannie Lynn Sowers, Christopher J. Toensing, The Journey to Tahrir, 75. [32] Claude E. Welch and Mavis B. Taintor, Revolution and Political Change, (California: Wadsworth Publishing, 1972), 149. [33] Cynthia McClintock, Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador’s FMLN and Peru’s Shining Path, (Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1998). [34] Schultz and Slater, â€Å"Revolution and Political Change in the Third World,† 34.

Mongolian History :: essays research papers

Mongolia RISE OF GHENGIS (Chinggis) KHAN After the migration of the Jurchen, the Borjigin Mongols had emerged in central Mongolia as the leading clan of a loose federation. The principal Borjigin Mongol leader, Kabul Khan, began a series of raids into Jin in 1135. In 1162 (some historians say 1167), Temujin, the first son of Mongol chieftain Yesugei, and grandson of Kabul, was born. Yesugei, who was chief of the Kiyat subclan of the Borjigin Mongols, was killed by neighboring Tatars in 1175, when Temujin was only twelve years old. The Kiyat rejected the boy as their leader and chose one of his kin instead. Temujin and his immediate family were abandoned and apparently left to die in a semi-desert, mountainous region. Temujin did not die, however. In a dramatic struggle described in The Secret History of the Mongols, Temujin, by the age of twenty, had become the leader of the Kiyat subclan and by 1196, the unquestioned chief of the Borjigin Mongols. Sixteen years of nearly constant warfare followed as Temujin consolidated his power north of the Gobi. Much of his early success was because of his first alliance, with the neighboring Kereit clan, and because of subsidies that he and the Kereit received from the Jin emperor in payment for punitive operations against Tatars and other tribes that threatened the northern frontiers of Jin. Jin by this time had become absorbed into the Chinese cultural system and was politically weak and increasingly subject to harassment by Western Xia, the Chinese, and finally the Mongols. Later Temujin broke with the Kereit, and, in a series of major campaigns, he defeated all the Mongol and Tatar tribes in the region from the Altai Mountains to Manchuria. In time Temuj in emerged as the strongest chieftain among a number of contending leaders in a confederation of clan lineages. His principal opponents in this struggle had been the Naiman Mongols, and he selected Karakorum (west-southwest of modern Ulaanbaatar, near modern Har Horin), their capital, as the seat of his new empire. In 1206 Temujin's leadership of all Mongols and other peoples they had conquered between the Altai Mountains and the Da Hinggan (Greater Khingan) Range was acknowledged formally by a council of chieftains as their khan. Temujin took the honorific chinggis, meaning supreme or great (also romanized as genghis or jenghiz), creating the title Chinggis Khan, in an effort to signify the unprecedented scope of his power.

Development of Online Grading System Essay

Introduction The logistical problems associated with distributing, collecting, grading, and returning assignments and the difficulties in ensuring fairness and consistency in grading tend to increase non-linearly with the number of students enrolled in a class. This is especially true in project based design courses where evaluation is subjective, deliverables are team-based, and the philosophies and expectations of course faculty members may vary substantially. Online course management programs can be very helpful in the dissemination of information and the collection of grades in very large courses like those offered as part of the freshman core curriculum. However, the automated grading capabilities of these programs are generally limited to question banks with clearly defined right and wrong answers. More advanced computer-assisted grading systems have been developed for the assessment and grading of students. However, fully automated systems are still limited to applications with well-defined rules and objectives. Computer-assisted grading rubrics that guide the grading process and compile the final results are a more promising alternative. Our members report that using computer-assisted grading rubrics during essay grading reduced the grading time by half compared to traditional hand grading without a rubric and by two-thirds compared to hand grading with a rubric. In addition to the â€Å"reduced time in grading assignments,† and our other members notes that computer-assisted grading rubrics can lead to increased â€Å"validity and accuracy of grading – making grading more even handed,† increased feedback for students, and increased student satisfaction. Kurt and Gilbert also observed that the use of grading rubrics increased the consistency of grades across multiple graders, especially when teaching assistants were involved. The advantages of computer-assisted and web-based grading rubrics have led to the development of online tools for the assessment of student. However, these systems still do not fully address the problems of real and perceived teacher bias in grading, grade inflation, and professor pleasing. For example, 51% of respondents in a 20013 faculty survey on capstone design courses rated their perception of grading fairness as only â€Å"fair – I seldom hear complaints† and none rated their perception as a â€Å"all bias and distortion have been eliminated†. These types of concerns have led many students to prefer that design projects be evaluated by external jurors because they â€Å"want the jury process to be more objective and believe that the presence of external jurors will help achieve this†. This led San Sebastian to â€Å"to take professors out of the grading process† entirely and â€Å"replace them with professional evaluators who never meet the students,† who â€Å"don’t worry that students will punish harsh grades with poor reviews† and who have â€Å"no temptat ion to skew results in any way other than to judge the students’ work. This paper presents an online computer-assisted rubric-based grading website that was developed in conjunction with a distributed jury-based grading system to improve the fairness, consistency, and efficiency of grading in a large required first year project-based design course. This work provides a brief overview of the course, its deliverables, and the breakdown of the final grade. It discusses the design requirements, features, and implementation of the online grading system. Reactions from course faculty and staff members based on end-of-semester survey results are presented. Finally, the current limitations and future development directions of the online grading system are discussed. CHAPTER 1 Introduction Leader : Marchjohn Glorioso Members : Kurt Mallari Gilbert Cruz View as multi-pages

It is well established that a judge, as part Essays

It is well established that a judge, as part Essays It is well established that a judge, as part Essay It is well established that a judge, as part Essay It is good established that a justice, as portion of his built-in power and overruling responsibility in every instance to guarantee that the accused receives a just test, ever has a discretion to except otherwise admissible prosecution grounds if, in his sentiment, its damaging consequence on the heads of the jury outweighs its true probatory value. The PACE 1984, s. 78 ( 1 ) , provides that in any condemnable proceedings the tribunal may decline to let grounds on which the prosecution propose to trust to be given, if it appears to the tribunal that, holding respect to all the fortunes, including the fortunes in which the grounds was obtained, the admittance of the grounds would hold such an inauspicious consequence on the equity of the proceedings that the tribunal ought non to acknowledge it. The Issue refering A’s state of affairs is whether the fortunes in which the grounds obtained via the covert recordings are admissible. The lone valid statement that can be raised by A in this case is if he can demo entrapment. Although entrapment is non a substantial defense mechanism in English Law, where an accused can demo entrapment, the tribunal may remain the proceedings as an maltreatment of the court’s procedure or it may except grounds pursuant to s.78. Entrapment can otherwise be described as state-created offense. A inquiry is whether the imposts officers did no more than show A with an run-of-the-mill chance to perpetrate a offense. Whether a imposts officer can be said to hold caused the committee of the offense, instead than simply supplying an chance for the accused to perpetrate it, will normally be a most of import factor, but non needfully decisive. Ultimately, the overall consideration will be whether the behavior of the officers were so earnestly im proper as to convey the disposal of justness into discredit. The test justice would hold regard to all the fortunes of the instance. The tribunal will besides hold respect as to whether imposts acted in good religion. Having sensible evidences for intuition is one manner good religion may be established. The rule is that governments such as imposts should forestall and observe offense, non make it. The demand for sensible intuition and proper supervising are both stressed in the clandestine operations codification of pattern. In the instance refering A, it is hard to place any case where the imposts officers may be said to hold overstepped their boundary. There is no issue of them bring oning A to perpetrate the offense or suggestions that any active function was played by the imposts officers to illicit the telephone grounds from A. The covert recording was supervised and recorded, and D’s admittances were sufficient for them to hold sensible intuitions. In the fortunes, it is highly improbable that the test justice will govern to rema in the proceedings or that the grounds will be excluded under s.78. ( 2 ) Defendants tell lies for a figure of grounds, non all of which signify guilt. This is a factual issue and should be left in the custodies of the jury. However, appropriate waies are required in some cases to guarantee equity. In order to steer juries in their attack to the affair of prevarications told by the accused, the justice is obliged in many instances to present a particular waies, known asLucas[ 1 ]Direction. This way is intended to warn juries against leaping excessively readily to the decision that any prevarications told by the suspect can be equated with guilt. There is a profuse instance jurisprudence, which induced Judge LJ inR v Middleton[ 2001 ] Crim LR 251, to state that instead than trawling through the hosts of instances and erudite commentaries, it is best for the tribunal to analyze whether a warning needs to be given in the context of each single instance. As test justice, the chief inquiry that arises is whether it is really necessary for him/her to present a Lucas way? The justice has to cover with this in entries made by the prosecution that purpose to profess that prevarications told by B is grounds of his guilt. In peculiar it was identified inBurge [ 1996 ] Cr App R 163, that amongst other things, a Lucas way is necessary where the prosecution is seeking to demo that something said by the suspect, in relation to a separate and distinguishable issue was a prevarication, and the prosecution relies on the prevarication as grounds of guilt in relation to the charge laid against the suspect. This being indistinguishable to B’s instance, a Lucas way will be required by the justice. In that instance, the jury will necessitate to be given counsel on how to near the prevarications told by the accused. In instances where a Lucas way is requiredJSB Specimen Direction No27edicts that the justice must foremost state the jury that before they proceed farther, they must make up ones mind whether they are certain that the suspect really told the relevant prevarication. In this instance, B is non challenging that he told the prevarication, he disputes that the prevarication was grounds of his guilt. The justice must so travel on to direct that if the jury are certain that B lied intentionally, they must so following ask themselves why the suspect lied. Peoples lie for all sorts of grounds, some are absolutely innocent-for case to bolster a true defense mechanism, to protect person, out of terror or confusion, or to hide some scandalous behavior other than committee of the offense charged. The justice would so mention to whatever account the accused has advanced to explicate why he lied. Then, the justice will state the jury that merely if they are certain that the suspect did non lie for an guiltless ground may they handle the prevarication as grounds back uping the prosecution instance. ( 3 ) Confessions constitute an exclusion to the rumor regulation. Sometimes they can nevertheless turn out undependable and unfortunately, even lead to abortions of justness. The beginning of a confession’s undependability may lie in the methods used to pull out it: if obtained by coercion, which can cover signifiers of force per unit area every bit varied as anguish at one extreme to far more elusive agencies of incentive presented to the suspect at the other, there is a field hazard that the confession may turn out untrue ; and this is rather hazard that the confession may turn out untrue ; and this is rather apart from any farther consideration that, as a affair of policy, the jurisprudence can non merely be seen to hold any truck with confessions obtained particularly oblique or overreaching methods. In position of such considerations, a figure of legal demands, both procedural and evidentiary, have been introduced with a position to cut downing the hazards of abortions of justness provoked by undependable confessional grounds. In add-on to commissariats such as these, nevertheless, tight limitations have been imposed on the conditions under which grounds of a confession may be admitted in a condemnable test. In peculiar, the prosecution may be required to turn out that a confession it wishes to abduce was non obtained in a mode that might project uncertainty on its dependability. S. 82 ( 1 ) PACE defines a confession and trades with the regulations environing it. A figure of regulations, statutory and common jurisprudence regulate the admissibility of confessions. C, holding raised entries contending the admissibility of his confession, it will now be for the test justice to make up ones mind admissibility. S 76 ( 2 ) PACE lays down that a tribunal must except a confession if the prosecution fails to turn out beyond sensible uncertainty that it has non been obtained as a effect of things that were said to C which render his confession undependable. In this instance, things said to C about his in-migration position could arguably render a confession undependable. No improperness needs to be shown on the portion of the imposts officer. S 76 ( 2 ) requires the tribunal, in making its determination to ignore the fact that it may be known that the confession was really true. Farquharson LJ noted inMcGovern ( 1990 ) 92 Cr App R 228,that the fact that the confession was in substance true is expressly excluded by the Act as being a relevant factorâ⠂¬â„¢ . The responsibility of the test justice in make up ones minding admissibility in C’s instance will foremost be designation of everything said and done, so, looking at what was said against the background fortunes, and inquiring whether that was likely to render any confession by C undependable. The tribunal should make up ones mind whether the Crown has proven beyond sensible uncertainty that the confession had non been made as a consequence of things said or done. Even where a confession does non conflict s 76 of PACE, the tribunal to boot has a discretion to except it under s 78 if it appears to the tribunal, that holding respect to all the fortunes in which the grounds was obtained, the admittance of the grounds would hold such an inauspicious consequence on the equity of the proceedings that the tribunal ought non to acknowledge it’ . ( 4 ) A strong statement for pulling inauspicious illation from silence occurs where the accused withholds his defense mechanism under question but presents it at test when it may be excessively late for it to be countered. S 34 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, provides that illations can be drawn from a suspect unreasonably neglecting to advert facts upon which he later relies in his defense mechanism. The properness of pulling these illations is dependent on whether, in the fortunes bing at the clip, the suspect could moderately hold been expected to hold mentioned peculiar facts when questioned, charged or informed that he might be prosecuted. The drawing of an illation under s 34 is conditional upon the suspect holding antecedently been afforded an chance to take legal advice. The test justice may find that it is unfastened to the jury to pull an illation, in which instance the jury must be carefully instructed on how to near the inquiry, to deduce or non to deduce. The justice will necessitate to give the jury counsel on what fortunes bing at the clip’ must be taken into history. This may include the extent to which the constabulary have disclosed information to the suspect to reference at interview and whether A’s silence was prompted by legal advice by his canvasser. In relation to the latter, the tribunals have repeatedly held that a suspect will constantly necessitate to make more than simply assert that he was moving on legal advice in order to avoid the jury’s being invited to see pulling an inauspicious illation. Therefore, in order to forestall the tribunal from pulling inauspicious illations , A will necessitate to province the footing or the ground for the advice. The suspect might wish to name his canvasser to attest as to why he gave this advice. The prosecution will wish to look into whether the advice was prompted merely by tactical considerations-in which instance the drawing of an inauspicious illation will still be justified. In A’s instance the inquiry for the justice is whether the advice given to A by his canvasser is such that was so necessary that he couldn’t put frontward his account so which he now seeks to trust. ( 5 ) Whether or non the jury rely on D’s unsupported grounds is a factual affair and that is wholly a affair for them to make up ones mind based on all the other back uping grounds that have been presented to them. The test justice will be able to explicate to the jury to look at the grounds as a whole in his account on application of the jurisprudence. Whether or non the justice decides to give a particular warning is wholly at his discretion depending on content and mode of D’s grounds and the issues raised. Basically the inquiry is whether he is a dependable informant? Mirfield,Silence, Confessions and Improperly Obtained Evidence: ( 1997 ) Oxford Publishing Press Munday, Inferences from silence and European Human Rights Law [ 1996 ] Crim LR 370 Munday R,Evidence, Butterworths 2001 Murray P,Blackstone’s Criminal Practice 2004, Oxford Publishing Press 1,998 WORDS

Molecular Mechanisms, Symptoms and Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis The WritePass Journal

Molecular Mechanisms, Symptoms and Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis Abstract Molecular Mechanisms, Symptoms and Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis AbstractIntroductionMolecular MechanismsSymptomsFutureConclusionReferencesRelated Abstract Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease that causes a dysfunctional cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein (CFTR) to be produced. This essay firstly will focus on the mutations of this defective protein and the intracellular effects. It will then consider the symptoms of the disease that can be observed including pulmonary, gastrointestinal, endocrine and reproductive problems. Then focus will be on the current treatment methods which target the consequences of the CFTR dysfunction such as phlegm retention and infection and the new treatment methods which treat the underlying CFTR defect such as targeting the trafficking of the protein. Introduction Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive inherited disease caused by a gene defect on chromosome seven that is responsible for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein (CFTR). This is found in the apical plasma membrane of epithelial cells in the lungs, sweat glands, pancreas amongst other tissues. This causes dysfunctional CFTR to be produced leading to a thick sticky mucus causing a recurrent cough, frequent lung infections by bacteria such as Psuedomonas aeruginosa and digestive problems. More than 1,500 mutations have been found including DF508 which is the most common, caused by a deletion of phenylalanine. The mutant allele was first isolated in 1989 and since then life expectancy has improved greatly to between 31 and 37 years old and is still increasing today. Numerous mutations have been identified which are classed differently (class I – VI) depending on how the dysfunctional protein is handled within the cell. Molecular Mechanisms Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disease which means both parents must be heterozygous carriers of the CF allele in order for the offspring to have a 25% chance of inheriting the disease, or 50% of being a carrier (figure 1). There are over 1,500 observed mutations of the CFTR protein but the majority of these are rare. The most common mutation is caused by a deletion of phenyl-alanine in position 508 (DF508) which accounts for 66% of CF cases.[1] The CF mutations are grouped into 6 classes depending on their functional consequences within the cell (table 1)[2]and the DF508 belongs to class II. Classes I III are more common and often have associated pancreatic insufficiency though class IV-VI are more rare and these patients are normally pancreatic sufficient.[1] The DF508 for example produces a misfolded CFTR and is recognised within the cell endoplasmic reticulum as an abnormal protein, leading to it being proteolytically degraded in the proteasome. This results in only small amounts of CFTR reaching the plasma membrane but this has a short half life leading to an insufficiency of chloride transport. The misfolded CFTR leads to a protein trafficking problem, hence new drugs that aim to rescue the protein from ER degradation could be therapeutic strategies to re-develop intracellular protein movement.[2] Since different mutations lead to different problems with the CTFR protein, certain treatment strategies may only work on a small proportion of patients. Table 1: Different classes of CFTR mutations and the effects of each intracellularly   – adapted from O’Sullivan, B.P. Freedman, S.D. (2009) Cystic Fibrosis. Lancet 373: 1891-904 There are several hypotheses as to how this CFTR mutation causes the disease known as cystic fibrosis. The first is the low-volume hypothesis. The loss of inhibition of sodium channels causes excess sodium and water reabsorption causing dehydration of airway surface materials and lack of a compensatory mechanism. This lower water volume causes inhibition of normal ciliary and cough clearance of the mucus and plaques form that harbour bacteria. Secondly, the salt hypothesis believes excess sodium and chloride are retained in airway surface liquid and the increased concentration of chloride disrupts the innate antibiotic molecules so bacteria persist. Thirdly, it is hypothesised disease is due to the dysregulation of host inflammatory response which is backed up by the abnormally high concentration of inflammatory mediators found in children as young as 4 weeks who appear disease free. Finally, the increased presence of asialo-GM1 receptors in apical membranes allow increased binding o f P. aeruginosa and S. aureus without the rapid self-limiting innate immune response since in normal patients it is believed the binding of bacteria to functioning CFTR generates an innate immune response which would not function in CF patients. This is made worse by the combination of increased bacterial binding. The CFTR gene defect causes absent or malfunctioning CTFR protein causing abnormal chloride conductance on apical membrane of epithelial cells in the lungs. [1] CFTR belongs to a family of transmembrane proteins called adenosine triphosphate binding cassette transporters and is a chloride channel.[2] It also has several other functions such as inhibition of sodium transport through sodium channels in the epithelium, regulation of ATP channels, regulation of intracellular vesicle transport, acidification of intracellular organelles and inhibition of endogenous calcium activated chloride channels. In the lungs, this dysfunctional CFTR causes airway surface liquid depletion leading to decreased ciliary stability and ciliary collapse with decreased mucociliary transport causing phlegm retention, infection and inflammation of the airways. Increased cAMP levels leads to phosphorylation of CFTR causing chloride transport but since this is not functioning in CF patients the chloride channel fails to open and respond to cAMP (a second messenger). This causes a decreased secretion of Cl⠁ » into the lumen airway so excessive water and sodium is absorbed. This cannot cross the epithelial membrane due to the osmotic gradient created leading to increased viscosity of mucus. Local mediators that are secreted onto airway surface liquid help regulate the surface liquid volume as they induce CFTR dependent and independent chloride secretion. The alternative chloride channel mediates chloride secretion since the P2Y receptor is activated by ATP in both CF and non CF epithelium which is triggered by movement. Respiratory syncytical viruses that may infect the airways have increased ATPase activity so more ATP is broken down; the loss of this compensatory mechanism that would activate the alternative chloride channel has a negative effect on airway clearance becoming a problem in CF patients. Symptoms Cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed at different stages of a child’s life; newborn testing occurs as standard since all babies are tested by a heel-prick blood sample as part of the Guthrie test and antenatal testing is carried out on women considered to be high risk of having a child with CF. Carrier testing is a mouthwash test to establish if each parent is a carrier and a genetic test via a swab on the inside of the cheek probes for 40 of the most common CF mutations which correctly diagnoses 90% of cases. One further test is to test the sweat on the skin of babies or children since patients with CF have a high salt concentration in the sweat and CF can be diagnosed if the salt concentration is above 60 mmol/L – this is because CFTR resorbes chlorine into cells of sweat glands and if this is dysfunctional this cannot occur. General symptoms that lead to a diagnosis include a family history, salty-skin, clubbing of the toes and fingers, a cough with sputum production, mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated – repeated chest infections, diarrhoea and poor weight gain. The further symptoms can be grouped into the organ they affect from pulmonary to gastrointestinal, digestive system, endocrine and reproductive symptoms. Pulmonary symptoms are perhaps the most obvious and commonly associated with the disease. A thick secretion of high levels of mucus into the lungs occurs which leads to frequent bronchial infections and a recurrent cough. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus are the most commonly isolated bacteria and can be found at high affinities in CF lungs. It is the failure of the mucosal defence system to clear these organisms that is the issue. Early studies suggested P. aeruginosa binds to CF epithelial cells at higher density than normal individuals due to more asialo-GM1 receptors in CF patients, however other theories hypothesised CFTR itself is a receptor for the bacteria that mediates intracellular uptake of the bacteria and killing of it that would be absent in patients with defective CFTR protein. Current studies however suggest the bacteria are present on the mucus layer on respiratory epithelial cells rather than the cell membranes making it unlikely this is the case. It was hypothesised salt-sensitive cationic antimicrobial peptides called defensins could not function in CF patients if the luminal side of the epithelium has an increased sodium chloride concentration. This seems unlikely though as not all defensins are salt sensitive. It is now thought dehydration of the airway surface liquid impairs cilia functioning and mucociliary clearance so inhaled bacteria colonise. Furthermore CF sputum has below normal oxygen levels that switch P. aeruginosa from non-mucoid to mucoid form that is resistant to host defences.[3] â€Å"The persistence of chronic P. aeruginosa infections in cystic fibrosis patients is due to biofilm growing mucoid strains.† [4] These biofilms exhibit increased tolerance to antibiotics and resist phagocytosis as well as parts of the innate and adaptive immune system. This leads to complex-mediated chronic inflammation which can cause lung damage. The bacteria are also so persistent as the mutate and have low metabolic ra tes and increased doubling times.[5] In the gastrointestinal tract, several problems occur throughout life. At the newborn stage, some babies may need an operation to remove mucus that is obstructing the bowel – a condition known as meconium ileus. Pancreatic insufficiency is also seen causing symptoms such as greasy stools, flatulence, abdominal bloating, poor weight gain and fat soluble vitamin deficiency with malnutrition. Since it is hard to digest food, malnutrition can occur which causes poor growth, physical weakness and delayed puberty.   This requires a pancreatic enzyme therapy with high calorie intake to manage. Older patients’ may develop an intestinal obstruction and the lack of absorption of vitamins A, D, E and K can lead to conditions such as anaemia, neuropathy and osteoporosis. The endocrine system can sometimes be affected in later life due to obstruction of the pancreatic ducts due to thickened secretions. As pancreatic disease develops the proportion of islet cells declines leading to a lack of insulin production where the blood sugar cannot be controlled which is then diagnosed as CF related diabetes mellitus, with symptoms such as constant thirst, hunger, weight loss and urination, however CF diabetes is not the same as type 1 and 2 diabetes. The reproductive system in women patients does not seem to be affected and they still produce healthy eggs, in men however the sperm ducts are blocked leading to male infertility. Some other symptoms include frequent sinusitis and hay fever that requires nasal spray or antibiotics and adults may develop nasal polyps. Incontinence can sometimes develop and in some patients bile ducts in the liver become blocked by mucus and the patient may require a liver transplant. Treatment Current Treatment of cystic fibrosis currently focuses on the consequences of the CFTR dysfunction such as phlegm retention, infection and inflammation though new strategies target the underlying gene defect. Currently, physiotherapy is one main treatment strategy used in combination with other management techniques. The thick sticky mucus secretions that block the airway in CF patients causing infections and coughing can be dislodged either by mechanical chest thumps or autogenic drainage and positive expiratory pressure. Physiotherapy is needed every day from between 15 and 50 minutes depending on the level of mucus present. Physical activity is also important as it prevents deterioration of the lungs and increases bulk and strength. Medication is used to treat cystic fibrosis such as lung medication including bronchiodilator drugs to open airways by relaxing the surrounding muscles, relieving tightness and shortening of breath and can be taken by being inhaled in nebulisers, taken orally or intravenously. Other medication includes antibiotics to treat persistent pulmonary infections, steroids to reduce inflammation of the airways and DNase to break down the mucus making it easier for the body to digest. Repeated pulmonary infections and thick mucus secretions can become so severe that the patient may need a lung transplant and possibly a heart or liver transplant also. Due to the nutritional problems associated with the disease, enzyme pills are taken with every meal and snack to replace pancreatic enzymes so more energy is gained from the food since there is a lack of digestive enzymes hence less nutrients can be absorbed from the food. These problems occur due to blocking of the small channels carrying digestive juices by mucus causing enzymes to build up in the pancreas that damages it over time. Nutritional supplements may also be given such as high energy drinks, and insulin may be necessary if the patient develops CF related diabetes mellitus. A suitable diet that is high in calories is also required to ensure adequate energy is gained. The lack of mineral absorption can lead to osteoporosis – weakening of the bones – which can be treated with bisphosphonates. Future There are a variety of new treatment possibilities targeting the underlying gene defect in the transmembrane receptor rather than downstream effects. Anti inflammatory drugs are one option due to persistent endobronchial inflammation in patients. The first main possibility is CF transmembrane regulator replacement therapy. This has already been tested using a variety of vectors such as adneoviruses, adeno-associated viruses and cationic lipids to transfect the functioning gene into epithelial cells. Some successful gene transfer has been seen into airway epithelial cells however it was short-lived CFTR expression and was hard to prove the link between improvement in CFTR function and clinical manifestations. The issue is it is yet unknown how much improvement in CTFR function is needed in order to make a big difference. The current research now focuses on the correct vector to use to minimise adverse effects and increase expression time – this is difficult as viral vectors hav e good transfection rates but more adverse effects and as multi dose therapy would be needed, virus-specific immune responses would devleop whereas liposomal vectors have less negative effects but worse transfection rates. [6] A second option being researched currently is CFTR pharmacotherapy involving drugs with affect intracellular trafficking of CFTR. This would not work for all patients due to the specific classes of mutations so it is of limited benefit. Class I mutations are stop mutations that decrease or eliminate production of CFTR. Aminoglycosides induce read through of premature stop codons so would produce a full length functioning CFTR protein, these can be topically applied and an improvement in CFTR functioning has been seen however the concentration needed is high and adverse effects mean they are not clinically suitable. An alternative to this includes PTC 124 – premature termination codon – which acts in a similar way but lacks toxicity. Class II mutations have misfolded CFTR and the trafficking of these is impaired due to proteosomic degradation; this CFTR does have chloride transport function however it is prematurely degraded and most does not reach the membrane. This giv es a   new target – drugs which reduce degradation of the misfolded protein and increase trafficking to the membrane – and libraries of chemical agents are being screened for applicants. Class III mutations have a reduced probability of opening the CFTR channel but these are rarer. Compounds which activate CFTR would aid class III mutations such as VX770 (a potentiator) that is being used in trials for patients with the G551D mutation that could show improvements in function of the CFTR as well as reduced sweat chloride concentration. However effects in class II may also be seen if used in combination with a corrector compound that brings CFTR to the surface and then the potentiator can activate it. [7] Option three involves opening alternative chloride channels to compensate for the lack of function of the CFTR channel. CFTR is not the only chloride transport channel in a membrane, a calcium-dependent chloride channel also secretes chloride in epithelial cells and increasing the activity of this may be an option so enough chloride transport occurs in the cell. Two drugs have shown to have an ability to do this via the P2Y receptor. First of these is denufusol, which bypasses the defective channel and activates the alternative chloride transporter – â€Å"This activation results in an increase in airway surface epithelial hydration, and through these actions and effects on cilia beat frequency, increases mucociliary clearance†[8] and has been shown to be an early intervention strategy when inhaled. The second of these drugs is lacovutide (Moli990) increases intracellular calcium level and activates alternative chloride channels, it does not bind with receptors but inst ead interacts with phospholipids on the plasma membrane. The CFTR protein has several functions chloride transport, inhibiting sodium transport as well as regulation of ATP channels. Inhibition of sodium absorption was hypothesised as a treatment option however amiloride (an epithelial sodium channel blocker with a short half life) was shown to have no clinical benefit and a tendency to decreased lung function. Studies on mice have shown when given as an early intervention the disease progression was prevented, however there is little evidence to show this in humans. An improvement may be seen in a blocker with a longer half life. Finally, airway surface liquid rehydration could improve the inadequate water content of the surface liquid by increasing the airway fluid layer with an inhaled osmotic agent. Hypertonic saline was found to have a positive effect on mucociliary transport and lung function due to induction of coughing and hydrating the mucus and new evidence has shown it also increased depth of the airway surface liquid. Inhaled powdered mannitol is an alternative. Effectiveness is limited to those with established lung disease but again, early intervention may prove more effective.   [9] Conclusion Cystic fibrosis is a lifelong eventually fatal disease caused by a genetic defect in the CFTR protein. How this protein functions and which factor is responsible for all the symptoms seen in CF patients is not yet confirmed though it is clear the dehydration if airway surface liquid causing the thick mucus that is hard to dislodge and harbours biofilms of bacteria leading to frequent infection is a major factor. Current treatment strategies target the downstream effects of CF such as the phlegm retention and make the disease manageable. The new development of drugs targeting the underlying defect is occurring with some in clinical trials though the benefit to each patient is unknown. This is because of the diversity of mutations and varying symptoms within each patient making this a difficult disease to treat. References O’Sullivan, B.P. Freedman, S.D. (2009) Cystic Fibrosis. Lancet 373: 1891-904 Ratjen, F. (2009) Cystic Fibrosis: Pathogenesis and Future Treatment Strategies. Respiratory Care 54: 595-605 cftrust.org.uk/aboutcf/whatiscf/    CF trust Kellerman D, Rossi Mospan A, Engels J, Schaberg A, Gorden J, Smiley L, Denufosol: a review of studies with inhaled P2Y(2) agonists that led to Phase 3.( Pulm Pharmacol Therapeutics. 2008 Aug;21(4):600-7. Epub 2007 Dec 31) Development, Inspire Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4222 Emperor Blvd, Suite 200, Durham, NC, USA. [emailprotected] ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18276176 Hoiby N, Ciofu O, Bjarnsholt T, Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in cystic fibrosis, (Future Microbiology 2010 Nov;5(11):1663-74) Department of Clinical Microbiology 9301, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Juliane Maries Vej 22, Copenhagen, Denmark. [emailprotected] ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21133688 Stryer, Berg, Tymoczko, Biochemistry, 6th edition, Freeman Griffiths, Wessler, Lewonitin, Carroll, Introduction to Genetic Analysis, 9th edition, Freeman Pocock and Richards, Human Physiology, 3rd edition, Oxford Publishing

The Pros And Cons Of Fitting In Essay Essays

The Pros And Cons Of Fitting In Essay Essays The Pros And Cons Of Fitting In Essay Essay The Pros And Cons Of Fitting In Essay Essay Essay Topic: Pros and Cons In the existent universe today. people from every background have faced the world of societal life and where they believe they would boom the most. Although we think we are ever right in any given state of affairs. it neer truly turns out that manner and brushs with adjustment in and the determinations made to be included in a certain societal group acknowledge the fact that sometimes we are incorrect. A quotation mark by Rick Warren states. â€Å"Those who follow the crowd normally get lost in it. † This remark describes that one time we become a follower. it is hard to alter. and may go trapped in the life of making Acts of the Apostless and workss for the leader who takes all the recognition while we starve merely to maintain in the class of a follower. In both short narratives. â€Å"Greasy Lake† and â€Å"Initiation† . the chief characters are confronted with determinations that makes it really hard for them to draw themselves out of. The two narratives normally portion the same message that adulthood. enticements. and peer-pressure arise all the clip and how we deal with it determines our hereafter. In â€Å"Greasy Lake† . the narrarator faces actions he does that inquiries if the description associated with him is the individual he truly is or if he is merely a regular adolescent who thinks he already grew up and matured. For illustration. the writer in â€Å"Greasy Lake† . describes the chief character as a tough adolescent who takes on the function of an grownup even when he shows immatureness at minutes. â€Å"We were all unsafe characters so. We wore torn-up leather jackets. slouched around with toothpicks in our oral cavities. sniffed gum and quintessence and what person claimed was cocaine† ( T. Coraghessan Boyle ) . The characters in this short narrative do Acts of the Apostless that they will reflect subsequently on in life and recognize that they were merely infantile and highly nescient. Although most of them were 18 or above. and felt like nil could halt them. one adult male stood up to the three male childs and set them to the trial. In add-on. once the state of affairs got out of manus. they fled the scene proving that even the toughest teens have character defects. The fact that they fled like cowards truly questioned their unity and adulthood. but besides made people think if they would make the same even if it made them look like a â€Å"pansy† . Even with their dorsums against the wall they could care less how they looked at the minute because like any other human being safety comes foremost. Furthermore. the storyteller even sees himself as a kid afraid of turning up. but takes on the function of a tough person to suit in when he states. â€Å"Understood. and stumbled back in horror and repugnance. my head yanked in six different waies ( I was nineteen a mere kid. an baby. and here in the infinite of five proceedingss I’d struck down one oily character and blundered into an boggy carcas of a 2nd. ) † ( T. Coraghessan Boyle ) . The storyteller exploits the fact that he was still a kid who neer thought before he acted and in this case could hold cost him his life. He realizes that being a tough person suits other people. but non himself. All in all. the male childs came to the decision that being â€Å"bad† expressions and feels cool but frequently can take to tragic results when they give in to peer-pressure. In â€Å"Initiation† by Sylvia Plath. a inquiry pops up: Are they making these Acts of the Apostless because they want to or because everyone else does it? For illustration. the chief character in Initiation. Millicent. waited for a really long clip to acquire a opportunity to be initiated in a privy sorority. but realizes that the jobs assigned to her makes her inquiry if she truly wants to travel through with the whole induction. â€Å"Millicent looked down the aisle of the crowded aisle and felt all of a sudden rather ill. She thought: How will I of all time do it. traveling up to all those stony-faced people who are gazing in cold blood out of the window†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ( Sylvia Plath ) . Certain induction darings like this one made Millicent repent desiring to be a portion of the sorority. but she overcame her frights and did all of the assignments asked upon her and it truly showed adulthood. Although Millicent did every job her big-sister asked her to make. she disobeyed the orders on occasion. and hence got punished for sometimes even smiling at a male child. There came a point in which Millicent became fearless of any act requested of her and the responsibilities became a game for her. â€Å"And from that clip on. inductions didn’t bother Millicent at all. She went gaily about Lewiston Square from shop to hive away inquiring for broken crackers and Mangifera indicas. and she merely laughed indoors when people stared and so brightened. replying her brainsick inquiries as if she were rather serious and truly a individual of consequence† ( Sylvia Plath ) . Initially. Millicent was a typical topic of how every miss acts in the procedure of induction. but Millicent came out of her shell. showed no failings. instead adulthood throughout the full procedure. â€Å"Greasy Lake† and â€Å"Initiation† are both narratives that truly stress the importance of adulthood and in state of affairss we need to maintain that adulthood and act like grownups instead than kids. In fact. in â€Å"Greasy Lake† the storyteller attempts a God atrocious act with the aid of his two brothers demoing no attention for others. In â€Å"Initiation† . Millicent completes her long fit end of going a member of the sorority. but alternatively shows adulthood in puting off from the group and feeling that she does non necessitate to be a follower to do friends or acquire noticed. â€Å"It was merely that she had learned there were other ways of acquiring into the great hall. blazing with visible radiations. of people and of life† ( Sylvia Plath ) . This quotation mark defines the exact message that dividing from the flock works out the best because one time that happens people will desire to be around an independent individual. Even wh en the safest function points to a follower. larning to step aside and see the other life of a leader exploits adulthood. Besides. in â€Å"Greasy Lake† . the storyteller shows his manhood. but right when the features of a â€Å"badass† slices. he commits the worst and feelings about him alteration. indicating out the bad features. â€Å"I came at him and brought the tyre Fe down across his ear. The consequence was instantaneous. astonishing. He was a stunt adult male and this was Hollywood. he was a large grimacing toothy balloon and I was a adult male with a consecutive pin. He collapsed. Wet his bloomerss. Went free in his boots† ( T. Coraghessan Boyle ) . The storyteller brought down what seemed to be a overly tough homo who was larger than most and held his ain against the three male childs until he was knocked out by a tyre Fe. The storyteller now felt unstoppable at this minute. and took it out on the man’s married woman who was wholly incapacitated. All together. the storyteller and Millicent made picks that affected their hereafter enormously positively or negatively . Peer-pressure frequently affiliates with bad vibraphones and elements. but how one deals with the state of affairs determines what sort of individual he/she reflects. Therefore. one often gets caught up in all the effects of peer-pressure and when that individual goes away with the act forced upon them. worse state of affairss stand in their manner. In add-on. the universe of peer-pressure quarries on the failings and exposure of people and attracts the incorrect crowd. In order to remain out of peer-pressure. the word â€Å"no† stands the biggest opportunity against the enticements that arise all the clip in people’s teenage old ages and sometimes subsequently on in life. All in all. people do non recognize how strong and affectional peer-pressure becomes. and one time entangled in the midst of it. the chance of avoiding it is highly hard.

U.S. government policies on economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

U.S. government policies on economy - Essay Example Student loans Student loans in America are a form of financial assistance that are supposed to be refunded, converse to other forms of financial assistance, for example, grants and loans. Student loans play an extremely significant role in the higher education of America. Approximately 20 million American citizens go to college every year. In America, a large part of higher education is financed by learners and their families and is perceived to be a venture instead of a basic human liberty. Consequently, students usually graduate with augmented debt levels. Also, student loans are divided into private student loans and federal loans (Wear Simmons, 2008). The Survey of Consumer Finances, 2010, indicates that 45% of all households have significant student-loan debts. This has a negative impact on the economy and productivity. Student loans have diminished the quality of my life. If I successfully meet the debt to income ratio, I may not have the capacity to reserve sufficient funds fo r a deposit. The Center for Responsible Lending estimates that average-income households take approximately 20 years to make sufficient savings for a 10% down payment. I may also take longer to save for a down payment due to additional financial requirements. There are a number of recommendations to address this issue. One is promote extensive adoption of the college scorecard by postsecondary-education institutes. Another recommendation is to establish a properly designed refunding program for students who borrow loans. It is also imperative to incorporate private student loans under bankruptcy protection. Free Trade Free trade is a policy by which the administration does not interfere with exports or discriminate against imports by enforcing subsidies to exports or tariffs to imports or quotas. In the view of comparative advantage, free trade policy allows trading partners equal advantages from trade of services and goods. Free trade has governed prices which are as a consequence of government intervention in the economy through supply restraints or price adjustments (Pugel, 2007). Free trade has improved the quality of my life. For instance, if tariffs on imported sugar are reduced in America, the American manufacturers will receive lower prices and profits while I and other consumers will spend less for an identical amount of sugar due to the similar decreased prices. It also avails numerous items with relative ease. Recommendations include developing additional programs, for example, the trade Adjustment Assistance program which assists those who lose their manufacturing positions due to foreign imports. Nations with dissimilar advantages should be permitted to capitalize on their differences and trade. Research and Development Industry finances two-thirds of America’s research and development. Nonetheless, significant researches are performed by research universities. The federal government developed the foundation for the Nation’s land gra nt institution through the Morrill Acts 4. The federal government support for research and development has developed into a changing and complex web. This has impacted the investment patterns, the economy, and productivity of America (National Science Board, 2008). Research and development has enhanced the quality of life. The fast change has helped me monitor and understand the position of the country in research and development competitiveness. It has also helped me to discover what essential information may be lacking that would give correct examination of the country’

Royal Opera House, Muscat sultant of Oman Essay

Royal Opera House, Muscat sultant of Oman - Essay Example Another factor that makes experiences unique is its variability. Two music concerts with similar genres might produce different experiences as the artists are different. Therefore, it can be said that experience marketing needs different techniques and strategies for customer satisfaction and building customer loyalty. ROHM or The Royal Opera House Muscat is one of the premier venues for culture and arts, based in Muscat, Oman. This opera house has been built by the king displaying contemporary architecture of Oman. The Opera House can accommodate up to 1,100 people. Equipped with latest technologies such as Mode23, the opera house was officially launched in the year 2011 (Royal Opera House Muscat, 2014). The Royal Opera House is a comparatively new theme in the Gulf Region. As a result, it is important to prepare and effective and long-reaching marketing plan that will help in generating required awareness and response for the opera house and garner local and foreign visitors. The purpose of the current project is to create a marketing plan looking into the external environmental factors and international strengths and weaknesses and of the opera house and subsequently create meaningful and feasible marketing mix strategies. The project will also throw light on the marketing and promotional strategies that are presently followed by the opera house. In order to ensure a successful marketing plan, it is important that the objectives and action plans are measurable, attainable and feasible. The objectives based on which marketing strategies will be based are as follows; Vision: The vision of the Royal Opera House Muscat is very inspiring and as a result the architectural foundation of the opera house is unique and undisputed. It is built is a region which does not boast any established opera culture or even classical or western music culture. The Gulf Region is majorly known for its

Wage Earnings in Australia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Wage Earnings in Australia - Research Paper Example This method has made it fairer for both the employee and employer while looking for jobs and at the same time while seeking for employees with good qualifications. Australian dollar is the currency used in payment of wages. A released data analysis indicates that mining, resource and energy jobs are the most highly paid ranging averagely $155, 042, - $121,913 per hour (Survey, 2012). Engineering jobs follow secondly while construction and consulting and strategy jobs are third and fourth respectively. Amongst the least paid jobs, include the administration and office support jobs, which earn averagely $56,820-$46,278. Minimum Wages Australia has a panel for fair work Ombudsman, which came into existence in 3rd June 2010. The work of the panel is to review the minimum wage an employee should earn. The panel reviews the wages every year and makes their announcement every 1st July annually. The panel also makes their findings public on the same day by publishing them on the government w ebsites and other potential site to bring employers to task with the current rates. The fair work panel also releases a minimum wage order that requires an employee not to earn any lower than the national minimum wage. Currently, the national minimum age is $15.96 per hour (Survey O. S., 2012). If an employee is a casual laborer, he or she is entitled to 23% casual lading wage. Fair work also takes part in monitoring and evaluating employers who contravene or go against the Law. Chris Evans the senator and minister of immigration and citizenship announced that temporary skilled workers in overseas should get payment similar to those paid to market rates. People under 21 years are referred to as junior workers and their rates re usually less than adults. However, different industries and occupations have different wages depending on the types of jobs done. Classification is under casual, permanent or sub contract basis. Subcontractors are not permanent employees and therefore the law of minimum wages does not apply in their case. Subcontractors have their own jobs and work at different hours and they earn commissions depending on how they negotiate with the contractors. The law is very tough on subcontractors and their employers. Under certain circumstances, an employer might subcontract an employee and pay him/her as an employee yet he/she is working as an employee of the organization or company. The trade unions describe how penalties, rewards, and allowances are earned. Most payments are done monthly in Australia but weekly wages still apply depending on the agreement with the employer. Australian law demands that employers provide their employees with pay slips before payment is done for verification. Superannuation is a retirement benefit scheme that any wage earner should pay. Nine percent of the total wage earned is always deducted for the payment of the retirement scheme. The money aims at retirement but can also be used in cases of injuries and illness . All the States in Australia have the command and rule over the salary of their educators. Data from the latest information indicate that all salaries from the Australian capital have a nine-point range. By 2003, South Wales had the highest paid teachers in Australia. The starting salary for trained bachelor of education teacher

Innovation and Competitive Advantage Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Innovation and Competitive Advantage - Thesis Example The companies are facing a great development in the global markets resulted from globalization. Therefore, they are thinking of a new generation of managers, which we call global managers. They have a wide viewpoint of unexpected environmental changes that needs a fast and right decision to make. The old generations of managers don't have this competency. So, they can't adapt with the new environment. (Kanter, 1995,p.149). Amidst all this change, the high ethical standards of an individual, be it a workman on the shop floor or the global manager, matter more now than ever. The dual ethical standards often maintained by people front-often the exact opposites when it comes of the way they conduct business are counterproductive in the long run. The new authority is emerging and organizations are member led, officer driven, customer focused; a team environment where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; a flat management structure where employees and managers are learning rathe r than blame; a clear since of direction and purpose. The six elements of an organization (Strategy, policies, structure, systems Climate, and culture) dynamically affect one another. Each element interacts with the environment as a business strives towards its goals. The problem definition/action planning process requires that a manager look at all six elements of the organizational model to determine which action levels will exist to implement positive change. If the environment changes, the organizational elements must adapt (Steven 124) Six elements that define organization; Strategy Policies and Procedures Structure Systems Climate Culture 1.1 Organizational strategy No organization exists in isolation. Every organization exists in an environment where it interacts with, and is influenced by, the general public, specific groups (whether they be customers, clients, suppliers, pressure groups, etc) and/or various government bodies. The organization is also affected by the economic, political, legal, social, technological and international variables of the times. All managers, whether they work in the public or private sector, operate in the same external environment. They face common pressures that the environment exerts on them. However, the nature of their work and the type of organization they work for will determine how these common environmental factors are perceived - whether they are seen as positive or negative, threats or opportunities. (Yvonne

Chinua Achebes Africa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chinua Achebes Africa - Essay Example They live almost entirely on yams, which are considered a man’s crop, but they also ate things that the women grew such as fruits and vegetables. The people in the village are very much like people everywhere else - there are many who work very hard and are respected and there are others, like Okonkwo's father Unoka who would rather spend their time entertaining others. But the common practice of the tribes was to indiscriminately cut down the virgin forests and exploit the resources of the land in the same way that the white man wanted to exploit the resources of the land. In this way, they aren't really that much different than the white men who come in toward the end of the book. It seems like that is the major message Achebe was trying to get across about the people in his book - that whether they were black or white, they were all the same underneath. Just like the white men, the black men of the village work and struggle to eke out a survival in a harsh land. It is becau se the land is so difficult instead of any lack of personal development that forces the society to base social status on each man's success as a farmer. Unoka is proof that a friendlier land that didn't make it so difficult to grow things would have led to a more artistically developed society.

Martha McCakey Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Martha McCakey - Case Study Example Moreover one of her old classmates working for the same company also encouraged her to join that company and finally she decided to join Praxis Associates. (Kyurinyan, 2006) Martha McCaskey was a hard working young woman who believed in good ethical standards at the work place. She never believed in short cuts to achieve targets. She has completed many successful projects at a fast pace and soon became a valuable member of the company. As a business tactics, Praxis Associates often hired ex employees of their competitors to obtain valuable information regarding the functioning of the competitors. They have divided the division into two sub groups; old guards and new guards. Old The attitude of the top management of Praxis associates was motivated only by the profit. They were ready to engage in any sort of activities to capture business and also they never believed in business ethics. For them, Business is a competitive world where only the smarter ones will succeed and the others will fail. In order to achieve targets anything can be done as per their moral standards. Moreover they forced the employees to go up to the maximum extent to achieve the targets. They never bothered about retaining the employees. It is under this circumstances Martha McCaskey asked to complete a project. It was a crucial time period of her career. The successful completion of that project will ensure her higher bonuses and promotion. But she found no way to complete the project without compromising her ethical standards. She was forced to decide whether she wanted to maintain her integrity and high standards or to compromise with all such things. Morality and ethical standards are vanishing gradually from the modern world. Globalization and liberalization policies made the competition immense in the business world. It is extremely hard to survive in a highly competitive business world by keeping all the ethical standards. Business is a smart game where most of the moves

Innovation and Competitive Advantage Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Innovation and Competitive Advantage - Thesis Example The companies are facing a great development in the global markets resulted from globalization. Therefore, they are thinking of a new generation of managers, which we call global managers. They have a wide viewpoint of unexpected environmental changes that needs a fast and right decision to make. The old generations of managers don't have this competency. So, they can't adapt with the new environment. (Kanter, 1995,p.149). Amidst all this change, the high ethical standards of an individual, be it a workman on the shop floor or the global manager, matter more now than ever. The dual ethical standards often maintained by people front-often the exact opposites when it comes of the way they conduct business are counterproductive in the long run. The new authority is emerging and organizations are member led, officer driven, customer focused; a team environment where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; a flat management structure where employees and managers are learning rathe r than blame; a clear since of direction and purpose. The six elements of an organization (Strategy, policies, structure, systems Climate, and culture) dynamically affect one another. Each element interacts with the environment as a business strives towards its goals. The problem definition/action planning process requires that a manager look at all six elements of the organizational model to determine which action levels will exist to implement positive change. If the environment changes, the organizational elements must adapt (Steven 124) Six elements that define organization; Strategy Policies and Procedures Structure Systems Climate Culture 1.1 Organizational strategy No organization exists in isolation. Every organization exists in an environment where it interacts with, and is influenced by, the general public, specific groups (whether they be customers, clients, suppliers, pressure groups, etc) and/or various government bodies. The organization is also affected by the economic, political, legal, social, technological and international variables of the times. All managers, whether they work in the public or private sector, operate in the same external environment. They face common pressures that the environment exerts on them. However, the nature of their work and the type of organization they work for will determine how these common environmental factors are perceived - whether they are seen as positive or negative, threats or opportunities. (Yvonne

Martha McCakey Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Martha McCakey - Case Study Example Moreover one of her old classmates working for the same company also encouraged her to join that company and finally she decided to join Praxis Associates. (Kyurinyan, 2006) Martha McCaskey was a hard working young woman who believed in good ethical standards at the work place. She never believed in short cuts to achieve targets. She has completed many successful projects at a fast pace and soon became a valuable member of the company. As a business tactics, Praxis Associates often hired ex employees of their competitors to obtain valuable information regarding the functioning of the competitors. They have divided the division into two sub groups; old guards and new guards. Old The attitude of the top management of Praxis associates was motivated only by the profit. They were ready to engage in any sort of activities to capture business and also they never believed in business ethics. For them, Business is a competitive world where only the smarter ones will succeed and the others will fail. In order to achieve targets anything can be done as per their moral standards. Moreover they forced the employees to go up to the maximum extent to achieve the targets. They never bothered about retaining the employees. It is under this circumstances Martha McCaskey asked to complete a project. It was a crucial time period of her career. The successful completion of that project will ensure her higher bonuses and promotion. But she found no way to complete the project without compromising her ethical standards. She was forced to decide whether she wanted to maintain her integrity and high standards or to compromise with all such things. Morality and ethical standards are vanishing gradually from the modern world. Globalization and liberalization policies made the competition immense in the business world. It is extremely hard to survive in a highly competitive business world by keeping all the ethical standards. Business is a smart game where most of the moves

Free

Freedom of Speech vs. Censorship Essay Adopted in 1791, the First Amendment, states â€Å"Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.† (Pilon) The freedom of speech documented in the First Amendment is not only a constitutional protection but also an inevitable part of democratic government and independence, which are essential values in society. â€Å"Censorship,† according to Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, â€Å"is an almost irresistible impulse when you know you are right† (Sunstein). That is why the American citizen’s right to free speech should be held as the highest virtue and any censorship of freedom of speech should not be allowed, however, should be respected. Freedom of speech is essential part of democratic government because the only way truth can emerge when there is an open competition of ideas. However, there is a strong support of censorship when people start mentioning extremely offensive opinions. Should the freedom of speech be limited in this case? The answer is â€Å"No†. â€Å"If liberty means anything at all,† writes George Orwell, â€Å"it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear.† (Cox) If we want to enjoy the freedom fully, the full protection should be given to the freedom of speech; there are no compromises about it. Freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment is not just a right, which can be declared or abolished. According to the â€Å"liberty theory,† proposed by some lega l scholars, freedom of speech is an essential part of the liberty of every person who pursues an individual self-determination and self-realization (Cox). Thus, freedom of speech is also a global right one that permits freedom of personal development and self-expression. Another theoretical ground to support the freedom of speech is called â€Å"tolerance theory.† It holds that the ability to teach and promote tolerance is one of the most important assets of freedom of speech (Cox). From this perspective, freedom of speech itself excludes any type of intolerance, which sometimes appears in a threatening form (religious intolerance, racial intolerance). The â€Å"tolerance theory† implies self-restraint, which is the only appropriate response to any ideas, even those that we may personally may dislike or hate. The â€Å"tolerance theory† provides a broader context for exercising tolerance in a conflict-ridden democratic society. Furthermore, in legal practice there are certain restrictions on freedom of speech imposed by the Supreme Court. They define a few categories of speech, which are considered not to be fully protected by the First Amendment. These categories include defamation, advocacy of imminent illegal conduct, obscenity and, fraudulent misrepresentation (Farber). However, if the speech does not fall within one of these categories, there are no grounds for the government to argue that freedom of speech should be restricted because of its harmful content. One of the common bases for partial censorship is proof that the freedom of speech causes imminent illegal action. The Supreme Court has already drawn a careful line between general abstract theories and political dissent on one hand and particular illegal acts incitement on the other. This line is drawn by definition of â€Å"clear and present danger† test (Farber). The government cannot sue the speaker on the basis of its tendency or possibly illegal conduct incitement. Before any speech is punished on the grounds of incitement, there is an obligatory three-part criterion that should be met. First, the speech must directly incite lawless action. Second, the context of speech must imply imminent breaking of the law, rather than call for illegal conduct at some indefinite future time. At last, there should be a strong intention to produce such conduct (Farber). Such â€Å"clear and present danger† test determines the level of probability of threat imposed by the speech in question. However, the evil, which the government tries to prevent by outlawing the advocacy, does not outweigh the harm of outlawing the free speech. Only when the imposed danger becomes evident, the freedom of speech may be questioned. We must be aware that the price for preventing several cases of the openly declared illegal conduct may be paid by restriction of one of the most essential rights that constitute freedom for the entire nation. For the wellbeing and public safety, the Supreme Court has imposed certain regulations on the freedom of speech not because of its content, but because of the time, place and, manner the speech is being expressed (Farber). The court pointed out in Snyder v. Phelps (2011) that one way to ascertain whether a restriction is content-based versus content-neutral is to consider if the speaker had deliver a different message under exactly the same circumstances (Supreme Court of the United States). However, these rules do not limit the actual freedom of speech and are not even upheld, if there is no public need for this. However, concerning the content-neutral regulation, it raises many controversial issues. The content-neutral regulation requires a very careful distinction and therefore may sometimes be misinterpreted. There is a raising concern that such regulation may weaken people’s right to participate, especially if the government puts too many restrictions on how the ideas should be voiced. Thus, by analyzing the current issues concerning the First Amendment right to free speech in the United States, I wanted to show the perspective of outlawing this right, and the negative aspects t hat such outlawing may involve. Freedom of speech has served a crucial role for the right to dissent and for the entire principle of democracy in our society. This law was developed during the course of American history and only after numerous struggles it was achieved. The evolution of this law is still in progress however, the limitation of the basic right to free speech may as well limit our freedom and democracy, therefore should be respected and protected. Works Cited Cox, A. A Freedom of Expression. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1981. Print. The Declaration fo Independence and the Consitituion fo the United States. The Declaration fo Independence and the Consitituion fo the United States. By Roger Pilon. N.p.: Cato Institute, 2000. 1-10. Print. Farber, D. The First Amendment. New York: Foundation Press, 1998. Print. Sunstein, C. Democracy and the Prolem of Free Speech. New York: Free Press, 1993. Print. United States v. Kozminski 487 U.S. 931 (1988). U.S. Supreme Court, n.d. Web. 1 Apr. 2013. http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/487/931/. United States. Supreme Court. Supreme Court of the United States of America. Supreme Court of the United States of America, Oct. 2010. Web. 1 May 2013. http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/10pdf/09-751.pdf.